Know Your Egyptian Gods & Goddesses

Egyptian religion is immensely complex, and it is not well understood by scholars. Beliefs and practices changed, sometimes radically, over 3,000 years of Egyptian history, and few easily understandable texts were left behind. On the surface the religion was polytheistic, with many gods derived from nature and the natural elements that surrounded them, but the gods were all manifestations of aspects of one great divine force. During the course of Egyptian history several of the gods were syncretized.

The pharaoh was regarded as a living god closely identified with the falcon-headed god, Horus. People would also worship a major state god as well as local city gods or patron deities relevant to their employment. This might be likened to the Christian practice of having patron saints. The gods all had specific powers attributed to them, were associated with special animals, and had specific feast days. Gods were also often viewed in groups of trinities consisting of a father, a mother, and a child.

Ancient deities were worshipped in temples, in shrines in people's houses, and possibly on the wayside. Temples were of two types: cult and mortuary. Cult temples were located, for the most part, on the east bank of the Nile, and they were dedicated to the cult of a particular god. In addition to the temple proper, there were libraries—buildings where doctors, astronomers, and botanists did their research—housing for priests, and storage areas for grain and other items. Temples owned land that they farmed or rented out, and they functioned as administrative and religious centers. A temple's high priest had many ranks of priests below him.

Mortuary temples were similar to cult temples, save for the fact that they were built on the west bank of the Nile and were primarily dedicated to the cult of the deceased pharaoh.

For most of Egyptian history the chief among the major gods was Amun, or Amun-Ra, a solar deity who saw to the balance and functioning of the world. Karnak at Thebes (now Luxor) was his primary temple. He was usually depicted as a human with a tall crown, but when he took on the manifestation of Amun-Ra (the Sun God), he was sometimes depicted with a falcon head and the disc of the sun above his head, and would be seen holding an ankh.

Amun's wife was Mut, a goddess of queenship who is closely associated with the white vulture, the hieroglyph that signified her name. As a woman, she holds an ankh and usually wears the double crown, which symbolized the union of Upper and Lower Egypt.

The son of Amun and Mut was Khonsu, the moon god. Like Amun, Khonsu was often depicted as a hawk, but above his head was a crescent resting within the full disc of the moon. He was also depicted as a youth with the beard and flail of a pharaoh.

From the Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 BC) onward, Osiris was one of the most important Egyptian gods. He is depicted as a mummiform figure and was the ruler of the afterworld. His skin was often colored green to signify rebirth; he usually held a crook and flail and wore the white crown of Upper Egypt. His main sacred site is the fabulously elegant New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC) temple at Abydos, north of Luxor.

The wife of Osiris was Isis, goddess of magic and one of the most important figures in the Egyptian pantheon. She is usually depicted as a woman wearing a crown with the hieroglyph for throne. She usually holds a staff in one hand and an ankh in the other. Her greatest surviving temple is at Philae.

Their child was Horus, who became one of the greatest gods and is often shown as a falcon, the symbol of kingship, or with the head of a falcon. Reigning pharaohs were always associated with Horus.

Set was the brother of Osiris, and during the Late and Greco-Roman periods was regarded as Osiris's mortal enemy. He was god of storms and deserts. In art he had the head of an animal with a curved snout and square ears.

Set's wife was Nephthys, a goddess associated with funerary rituals. Her depictions are almost always of a woman with a hieroglyphic crown signifying her name.

Jackal-headed Anubis was in charge of embalming and mummification and the actual trip to the afterworld. In the Hellenic and Christian eras he was associated with Hermes, then with the now-decanonized St. Christopher.

Maat was the goddess of truth, justice, balance, and order—all very important concepts in the Egyptian view of the world. She usually holds a scepter and ankh and is crowned with an ostrich feather.

As well as being associated with kingship, Hathor was the goddess of love, music, beauty, and dancing. She was also goddess of remote places, such as turquoise mines. One of her sacred sites is Deir al-Bahri, Queen Hatshepsut's magnificent temple on Luxor's west bank, and her cult temple is at Dendera. She is almost always depicted with cow horns, or simply as a cow.

Ptah was a creator god, associated with Memphis; he is usually depicted in mummified form wearing a skullcap. Sekhmet, his wife, was goddess of plagues, revenge, and restitution and usually has the head of a lioness. Their child was Nefertum, associated with rebirth in the afterworld, depicted as wearing a water-lily crown.

Thoth was the ibis-headed god of writing and knowledge, and he was associated with the moon.

Ram-headed Khnum was associated with creation. His wife was Anukis (sometimes depicted as a gazelle or with a feathered headdress), and their daughter was Satis. They were all important in the region of the first cataract of the Nile, around Aswan, and therefore Khnum was associated with the river's annual inundation.

The crocodile-headed god Sobek was protector of the world from his watery home in the Nile. His main cult temple was at Kom Ombo.

It is interesting that there was no god identified specifically with the Nile, though the plump god depicted with the head of a baboon and pendulous breasts, Hapi, was the god of the inundation.